On Karma

Introduction

The word ‘Karma’ has for some time now become part of the vocabulary of the West. But the general understanding of the concept is limited to vague notions of the ‘what-goes-around-comes-around OR as-you-sow,-so-shall-you-reap’ variety, very often leaving out the theory of rebirth. This is a major lacuna. Belief in reincarnation and transmigration of the Self (samsara) is an important component of the Hindu doctrine of Karma. It is believed that the Law of Karma symbolises the perfect justice inherent to the cosmic order. Together with Dharma, it gives a more complete picture of Hindu ethics.

Etymology

‘Karma’ derives from the Sanskrit noun ‘karman’ meaning an act, action, performance, work, labour, activity, etc., which in turn derives from the root verb ‘kri’, which means to do, to make, to perform, to cause, to effect, to undertake, and a whole such host of actions. Over time, the word has come to mean a whole cluster of words and ideas. Karma thus means not just the actions, but the cumulative consequence of all ones actions. The idea of Karma is so deeply ingrained in the Indic mind, so entrenched is the notion that an individual’s destiny is the direct consequence of his / her past actions, that, in popular parlance, Karma is often used as a synonym for ‘fate’.

Historical Development

Like most ideas in Hinduism, Karma traces its roots to the Vedas; particularly, the principle of ‚ta, which amongst other things envisages that an eternal moral order is involved in the very course of nature. The idea that no action by anybody is lost in vain and that a person has to undergo the consequences of his action according to its merits or demerits, is found in the Vedic literature. However, these ideas were still inchoate in the early Vedic period (1800 – 1200 BCE). These ideas start becoming more articulate from the period of the Brahmana literature (ritual commentary), till by the time of the early Upanishads (1000 – 800 BCE) the Law of Karma was well established in Hindu Philosophy. Gautama Siddhartha, (563-486 BCE), the Buddha, carried forward these ideas to Buddhism; albeit with some changes.

The Doctrine of Karma

The Principle of Karma has two aspects to it. Firstly, it states that NO action is lost in vain (kritaprasnasah); one can in no way escape the consequences of his action(s). Secondly, it also categorically states that NO one is to bear the consequences of actions which he has not one himself, (akritabhyupagamah). If somebody does not exhaust the fruits of his actions in the present life, he has to assume a future life by way of rebirth. This makes rebirth / reincarnation & transmigration of the Self, together known by the Sanskrit word ‘Samsara’, a necessary consequence of the law of Karma. Seemingly ‘undeserved’ pleasure or suffering is believed to be the outcome of meritorious or wicked deeds done in past lives. A commonly known image of the concept of reincarnation is the ‘Wheel of Rebirth’ which holds the individual in bondage. Karma leads to rebirth in order that the Self may face the consequences of its past actions which in turn causes the Self to perform more actions resulting in even more consequences for it to face. This cycle goes on endlessly; the Self is as it were in ‘bondage’ tied to the ‘wheel of rebirth’ enduring endless cycles of births and deaths. A rather gloomy pessimistic outlook for the fate of the Self, but more on that later.
While Karma literally means action of any kind done by a sentient being, only voluntary (aichchika) karma is thought to be morally significant, it is these Karmas that generate effects or consequences.

Corollary: Latent Tendencies (Samskaras)

A very important corollary to the law of Karma is the law of desires, “As is his desire, so is his will; as is his will, so is the deed he does, whatever deed he does, that he attains.” (Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, IV 4,5). It is believed that each action gives rise to latent tendencies (samskaras) which the Self carries forward in each successive rebirth. Good actions give rise to good tendencies and wicked actions give rise to wicked tendencies and these cumulatively reside in the karmic memory, as it were, of the Self. In effect this means that each Self, accumulates both benevolent and malicious tendencies over many births. Thus every person is born with great capacities for both good and evil. This gives rise to a strange combination of pre-destination and free-will. It is believed that each action that a person chooses to perform (free-will at work here), either good or bad, awakens a corresponding latent tendency for good or bad which in turn impels (pre-destination) the person to perform even better or wickeder actions. As these latent tendencies are awakened, it takes greater resolve, stronger exercise of will on part of the person to halt and reverse the virtuous or vicious cycle, in a persons life.

The ‘playing out’ of Karma

Depending upon the kind of influence they have on the Self, Karma is classified into four categories. Accumulated (sanchita) Karma, is the sum total of all the unrecompensed mass of Karma cumulated over many births. Matured (prarabhdha) Karma, is that portion of accumulated Karma that ‘plays out’ in a persons life as ‘fate’. It is matured karma that determines such things as the circumstances of birth, the fortunes (good or bad) that the person encounters in his life. Present wilful (kriyamana) karma, is that currently being accumulated owing to actions being performed. Immediate (agami) Karma, is the immediate consequence / recompense of our present wilful actions. To explain it differently, we are constantly performing actions some of which have immediate consequences, some of which get accumulated to be recompensed later; some of the recompense we face is on account of actions performed in this life, some on account of those performed in previous lives. For example, if I over eat today, I will face its recompense (indigestion) tomorrow. If I steal from someone, and manage to go unpunished by the law, I will have to face the consequences in some future birth.

On things to come

The Law of Karma has often been accused of being pessimistic, of promoting fatalism, and of being an explanation given by the higher castes to justify the exploitation of the lower castes by blaming their miserable conditions on wicked actions of a previous birth. Indeed, when seen in isolation, the doctrine of Karma may seem like an elaborate attempt to come to terms with the unfairness of life, by inventing a system that tries to explain the unfair events by a fictitious cause and effect logic. However, when interpreted along with the ideas of Dharma and the concept of Moksha, (the Hindu equivalent of the Christian concept of salvation), it becomes clear that the doctrine of Karma is not pessimistic or fatalistic, and that it was not propounded as a justification for an exploitative social system.

On Dharma

Dharma derives from the Sanskrit verb root ‘dhri’, which means to uphold, to support, to carry, to bear. The word Dharma thus literally means, ‘that which upholds’. What is it that Dharma upholds? Everything.

Dharma has both the descriptive and prescriptive aspects ti it. In the first sense, Dharma describes the ‘way things are’. It connotes the inherent order and harmony in the nature of all entities that constitute the cosmos. In the prescriptive sense, Dharma sets the standard for the ‘way things aught to be’. It portrays the ideas and ideals that should be aspired for. Implicit in this syncretisation of the descriptive and prescriptive senses of Dharma is the proposition that goodness, harmony, order, etc., are the essential quality or character of the phenomenal world, and evil, discord, chaos, etc., are aberrations.

Dharma, thus, encompasses the concepts described by the English words duty, law, religion, custom-tradition, conformity (to dharma), virtue, righteousness, morality, rule, authority, etc. Dharma, in its entirety, symbolises the positive aspects of the phenomenal world (the universe) since it is a reflection of the fact that the phenomenal world (the universe) derives from, is sourced out of and is grounded on Deity. Dharma, thus, is a manifestation, a symptom, of the immanence of Deity in all existence. Hence, it is Dharma which enables and ensures spiritual progress towards the attainment of the self’s spiritual goals.

In practical terms, Dharma operates on all levels from the microcosm of the individual to the macrocosm of all existence. For the individual, this manifests as conformity to social and ritual duties, to the traditional rules of conduct for one's caste, family, and profession. Such requirements constitute an individual's Dharma (law and duties), and are the part played by the individual in contributing to the broader stability, law, order, and fundamental equilibrium in the cosmos, in nature, and in society. The contextual nature of Dharma is apparent in the different scopes of applicability of the different, often overlapping, levels or layers of Dharma. The individual prescriptive Dharma is defined by its context with reference to the descriptive Dharmas pertaining to ever expanding levels of family, caste, society, nation, human-kind, all life and all existence. Traditional Hindu thought, thus propounds a relativistic outline of morality. The dos and don’ts of ethical conduct would differ for different individuals, under different circumstances, at different points of time.

Returning to the operative levels of Dharma; at the core lies ‘Svadharma’ – the essential quality, nature, character of the individual (‘Sva’ = oneself) and conformity to it. Individual identity is comprised of the ‘inborn nature’ (genes) as well as life experiences, cultural milieu and upbringing – the accretive sum of nature and nurture – that defines who a person is. Svadharma enjoins the individual to be a genuine person, to be true to himself – true to his identity. Hinduism’s rejection of proselytisation is founded in this idea of Svadharma. A person’s religion is defined by his Svadharma; it constitutes of his genes, his heritage, his culture and upbringing, and hence is inherently unchangeable. One can act differently from what one’s Dharma requires, but one CANNOT CHANGE one’s Dharma. Changing ones religion is tantamount to denying ones identity and acting in contradiction of ones nature – something which is not conducive to attaining ones spiritual goals. For this reason, Hinduism does not seek to win converts. No one who is not born to it can become a Hindu. Says the Bhagawat Geeta, “Verily, death itself, (if encountered) in (following) one’s Dharma is admirable; (following) the Dharma of another is fearsome (in terms of its consequences).”

Man is a social animal. The atomic unit of social organisation is the family. The most visible part of Dharma is the one that deals with the individual’s relation with his family and with society. This is level of ‘Varna-Ashrama Dharma’. Varna = colour, and it refers to the individual’s and his family/clan’s place, rank, or position in society, and the duties and professions incumbent upon them. In ancient Hindu society, a family’s profession and place in society was hereditary. For instance, Brahmin families were supposed to engage in education, officiating over rituals and interpreting the scriptures and families would follow these professions generation after generation. The much abused ‘caste system’ of Hinduism is a crude derivative of the Varna Dharma, and the exploitative customs and beliefs that became part of the caste system are examples of the ill-effects of enforcing a rigid dogma and hierarchy on the fluid and relativistic spirit of Varna Dharma. (More on the caste system in a separate entry as and when time permits.)

While Varna Dharma pertained to the hierarchy and ‘division of labour’ associated with social segmentation and occupational specialisation, the Ashrama Dharma laid down the duties, expectations and requirements of individuals in various stages of life. Traditionally, four stages of life were recognised. The first stage was the ‘brahmacharya ashrama’, the preparatory stage of life as a celibate student. This was the phase of life when the individual received an education. After completion of education, which included a period of apprenticeship in the hereditary profession, the individual usually got married and entered the phase of the householder, the ‘grihastha ashrama’. The prime duty of a person in this stage of life was to earn a living and help provide for and nurture the family. In practical terms this was the longest phase in the individual’s life. This long period of productive social life was followed by a phase of retirement known as ‘vanaprastha ashrama’ or the ‘forest-dweller’s phase’. In this phase the individual, after having fulfilled his duties and discharged his responsibilities in the householder phase, was expected to gradually withdraw from this active life and to devote time to spiritual quests. The fourth and final phase was the phase of renunciation, ‘sanyasa ashrama’ which was entered into after the previous contemplative stage had brought about a level of detachment from the material world, was the phase of dedicating ones life to attaining ones spiritual goals. In between them, a person’s Varna or position /profession in society and his ‘ashrama’ or stage of life together gave the complete ‘prescription’ for all the social activities, duties and obligations of the individual.

A level above Varnashrama Dharma is a kind of general ethical code called ‘sadharana dharma’ or ‘samanya dharma’. These are the common virtues that all individuals (irrespective of caste, gender or age) would need to persevere to inculcate. Several such virtues are enumerated in the scriptures pertaining to Dharma, the Dharma-shastras. Most such ‘lists’ include Non-violence (ahimsa), truth (satya), integrity (asteya), purity (saucha), control of the senses, (indriya-nigraha), perseverance (dhriti), forgiveness (kshama), self-control (dama), wisdom (dhi), learning (vidya), and absence of anger (akrodha). This over-arching set of virtues is perhaps the closest analogue Hinduism has to the Ten Commandments.

Rta, is Dharma at the highest level. It represents the cosmic laws and forces by which all things are maintained (upheld). Thus all entities, both animate and inanimate, operate according to the principles of the rta. Often interpreted as the universal truth, the concept of rta exists from the earliest Vedic period (possibly pre-dating the Vedic deities). In the Vedic era, it was believed that the correct performance of the rituals as described (and prescribed) in the Vedas was essential to maintain rta, failing which the cosmic order would collapse into chaos. However, towards the end of the Vedic period, by the time of the Upanishads, the emphasis had shifted from rituals. The idea of the Brahman envisioned the rta, as a manifestation of the Brahman, as sustained in itself. The word, rta, derives from the root verb ‘R’ which has two sets of meanings. It signifies, ‘to move’ and ‘through movement, to fit or to arrange’. Thus, the Vedic concept of rta has ordered activity, or organised movement as its basic element. As a manifestation of Brahman, rta is believed to be one of the primal constituents of the universe. rta sets the ‘ideal’ in place at the cosmic level, in reference to which the distinction between ‘is’ and ‘ought’, ‘right’ and ‘wrong’ assumes some meaning. rta thus implies that there is no caprice or disorder in the realm of morality; and in doing so rta becomes the seed of the doctrine of Karma. Thus rta is the totality of Dharma and anrta (non-rta) as its anti-thesis is adharma. However, the high degree of abstraction in the concept of rta makes it difficult to deduce practical moral dictates from it. This is where the axiomatic de-abstraction of the rta sequentially into sadharana Dharma, Varna-ashrama Dharma and Svadharma comes into play. However, the ‘mandate’ of upholding the universe means that Dharma has to extend beyond morality, to the entire sphere of human behaviour. This is where Dharma extends to embrace such prescriptive and descriptive ideas as duty, tradition, customs, law, virtue, righteousness, etc. Dharma is the ‘right way of living’, and the Hindu Dharma is the Hindu way of life.

On Revelation

All Hindu scripture is divided into two categories. The ‘Shruti’ literature – that which was ‘heard’, and the ‘Smriti’ literature – that which is remembered. Roughly, these two types of literature correspond to ‘revelation’ (shruti) and ‘tradition’ (smriti).

The core of the ‘Shruti’ literature is the ‘Veda’ – which simply means ‘knowledge’. The Veda is Hinduism’s most ancient scripture and is axiomatically regarded as an absolute authority revealing fundamental, eternal and unassailable truth. Paradoxically, however, its content has long been practically unknown to most Hindus, and it is seldom drawn upon for literal information or advice. Still, it is venerated from a distance by every traditional Hindu (astika - from the verb asti = to be, to exist, thus ‘astika = ‘he that believes in the existence of’), and those Indians who reject its authority are regarded as unfaithful to their tradition (nastika – he who does NOT believe in the existence of). The Veda is also regarded as the basis of all the later texts (the ‘smriti’ or tradition part of Hindu scripture) used in Hindu doctrine and practice. Interesting to note here is a fact that underlines the primacy of the Veda for Hinduism; nastika, the ‘unbeliever’ is not a person who rejects a deity, who denies the existence of ‘God’, he is a person who rejects the authority of the Veda. However, this does not make Hinduism the people of a ‘book’ primarily because the ‘Veda’ is more of the ideal of eternal knowledge and does not simply refer to the collection of hymns. Even more puzzling to the western students of Hinduism is the fact that the Vedic hymns are not a set of rules or laws for religious, or social behaviour, and the Veda does not by itself enjoin a specific morality on those who revere it. Vague as this idea sounds, it will become clear when the classification of Vedic scripture is outlined.

The ‘Veda’ is not regarded as the ‘word’ of the deities. The Veda is eternal, it does not come into existence when a God ‘speaks’ it out, Veda has always been – always will be. The Veda is fundamental; it exists on its own (swayambhu) and does not depend upon a deity for its existence. The Veda is not a ‘book’ because eternal knowledge cannot be encompassed in a book. Interpreting the Veda as the ‘word’ of the Brahman, is also not accurate either because an attribute-less reality cannot ‘speak’ a ‘word’.

The Vedic literature comprises of something like a four by four matrix. There are four Vedas, the Rig, Sama, Yajur and Atharva. Each veda comprises of four sections:

1. The Samhita (collection): a collections of hymns (suktas and mantras)

2. The Brâhmaòas (named after the Brahmins who conduct the Yajna): a manual of the rituals of the Vedic fire sacrifice along with the meaning of these rituals, the Brahmanas

3. The Aranyakas (‘books’ of the forest): these texts mark a transition from the ritualism of the Samhita and the Brahmanas to the speculative philosophy and spiritualism of the Upanishads. So many Aranyakas form the concluding sections of the Brahmanas, while some Aranyakas have the Upanishads appended to them or embedded in them. These scriptures are esoteric in nature, and they emphasise the the true mystique of the Yajna (sacrifice rituals), by glorifying the inner mental sacrifice as against the external material one. Hence, these texts were traditionally restricted for study and contemplation in the forest (aranya); hence the name aranyaka.

4. The Upanishads (to sit beside): Regarded as the culmination of the Vedas, the Upanishads are often referred to as ‘Vedanta’ – ‘end of the Vedas’, because they are the last part of the Vedic scripture. The Upanishads represent the esoteric knowledge imparted by the teacher (guru) to his disciple/ pupil who ‘sits beside’ him; hence the name Upanishad. The importance of the Upanishads as the core spiritual wisdom of India cannot be over-emphasized. The Upanishads are concerned with the contemplative-realisational aspects of spiritual life, as against the ritual aspect as described in the samhitas and the brahmanas. There are over 200 Upanishads, including such recent works as Khristopanishad and Allopanishad (Upanishads about Christ and Allah respectively). However, most of these 200 are known as Upanishads for name sake only. Usually, 13 Upanishads are regarded as the principal Upanishads, and are connected with one Vedic rescension / branch or another. The principal Upanishads were composed between 1000 BCE to 300 BCE.

The Upanishads represent the high watermark of Vedic thought, but many aspects of their teachings were too subtle to be adequately comprehended by ordinary people. They demanded a high intellectual level, strict spiritual discipline and a degree of Vedic education. The Upanishads gave the people a philosophy, but not a religion.

Usually when the word ‘Veda’ is used, it refers to the entire body of Vedic literarure. However, when the name of a specific Veda is used it generally refers to the samhita of that Veda. Thus the term ªig Veda usually means the Rik Samhita or the Rig Veda Samhita. The erm ‘four Vedas’ often signifies the four samhitas. These are the oldest religious scripture of Hinduism and span almost a millennium from 1800 BCE to almost 1000-900 BCE. The four samhitas are:

1. the Rig Veda: comprising sacred songs and hymns (mantras, suktas) praising the Vedic deities is the oldest of the Samhitas. It is estimated that the Rig Veda was composed between 1800 BCE to 1200 BCE. It has 1028 suktas (hymns) arranged in 10 books called mandalas. Many of these books are named after the clan of Brahmins descended from the seer who ‘heard’ the hymns. The suktas of the Rig Veda in praising the exploits and achievements of the vedic deities present their mythology. However, some suktas serve as an indication of future developments in Vedic thought along two different lines, ritualism and philosophical speculation.

2. the Sâma Veda: consisting of melodies and chants used by the brâhmaòas (Brahmins, priests) during the fire-sacrifices ‘yadnya or yajna’. Most of the 1549 mantras in this samhita are taken from the Rig Veda, particularly the 8th and 9th books (mandalas). These hymns are re-arranged for liturgical purposes in forms that can be used as ‘samans’ (chants) during the yadnya. Using the Sama Veda hymns as basis the actual chants of the recorded in the ‘ganas’ collections of songs.

3. the Yajur Veda like the Sama Veda is also ritualistic in character and is in many ways the first regular textbook of Vedic ritual as a whole. It mainly deals with the duties of the ‘adhvaryu’ the chief Brahmin who officiates over the rites of the Yadyna / Yajna. (The name of the veda Yajur and the Yajna derive from the same root word Yaj). There are two main branches or rescencions of the Yajur Veda, the Krishna or Black Yajur Veda and the Shukla or White Yajur Veda. These rescensions are not different so much in content as in arrangement. In the Black Yajur Veda, the mantras or hymns (mostly derived from the Rig Veda), the Yajus, sacrificial formulae in prose, and the ritualistic explanation (known as the Brahmana) are mined together.

4. the Atharva Veda: a very heterogeneous collection of mantras. Unlike the Sama Veda and the Yajur Veda which mostly repeat the hymns of the Rig Veda, the Atharva Veda is an independent set of mantras that concerns itself with the everyday life of the Vedic people and is usually considered the Veda of magic. The Atharva Veda hymns are very diverse in character, they have charms to counteract diseases and ward of evil spirits, descriptions of medicinal herbs, prayers for health, wealth, happiness and longevity, love spells, chants that help kings accomplish various royal tasks, black magic and counter black magic, and perhaps most surprisingly, philosophical speculations.

As described above, each samhita has its associated brahmana, aranyaka, and upanishad. It will be easier to present these in a tabular form:

Veda	Samhita (Rescensions)	Brahmana	Aranyaka	Upanishad
Rig Veda	Rk	Kaushitaki, Aitareya	Kaushitaki, Aitareya	Kaushitaki, Aitareya
Sama Veda	Jaiminiya	Tandya, Jaiminiya, Talavakara		Chandogya, Kena
Krishna Yajur Veda	Taittiriya, Kathaka, Maitrayaniya	Taittiriya, Katha	Taittiriya, Katha	Taittiriya, Katha, Svetaswatara, Maitri
Shukla Yajur Veda	Vajaseniya	Shatapatha		Isa, Brihadaranyaka
Atharva Veda	Atharvana	Gopatha		Prashna, Mundaka, Mandukya

This massive collection of texts is the ‘shruti’ or revealed scripture of Hinduism. Before moving on to the even more voluminous ‘smriti’ portion of Hindu scripture, I would like to add a few words about the Upanishads. Better known in India and abroad as 'Vedanta' - the culmination of the Veda, the Upanishads are regarded by most scholars of Hinduism and Indian religions as the foundation of Indian philosophy. The Upanishads are significant for two main reasons. Firstly they represent what is called the 'Axial Shift' in Indian thought. And secondly, they articulate clearly for the first time, several key concepts that are the cornerstones of Hinduism and Indian Buddhism. It would not be wrong to say that the Upanishads mark the transformation of the Vedic religion of the ancient Aryans, into Hinduism.

The Vedic Aryans, lived in the thick of divinity. The Vedic deities were not just presiding masters of natural phenomena controlling them from their heavenly abodes, they were these forces in person. Everything in the world was infused with divinity and the Vedic deities themselves belonged to the everyday world of men. Part of this Aryan view of the universe was the concept of ‘Rta’ the cosmic order. The sacrifice (yajna) was the very centre of these cosmic processes as well as human concerns, and religious desires and goals. It was through the sacrifice that the cosmos continued in its cycles and that human beings obtain the goods of life and a place in heaven in the next world. The aim of spiritual life during the early Vedic period was to maintain the cosmic order and secure for man, prosperity, happiness, bounty and longevity in this life, and prolonged enjoyment of the same in heaven after death. This was done by singing hymns of praise to the Vedic deities and offering oblations to them as part of the Yajna.

The Upanishads, mark a dramatic shift in spiritual thought. ‘Heaven’ was no longer seen as the summum bonum of mankind’s spiritual quest. The idea gained ground that material enjoyments, even the attainment of heaven and its pleasures was transient; that moksha, (liberation, state of perfect bliss and complete freedom), could not be attained by mechanical performance of rituals (works, karma) alone. The Upanishads develop four crucial concepts the that are central to Hindu metaphysics, atman, Brahman, karma and samsara. These and some other Upanishadic concepts are also shared by Buddhism and hence they have had an impact well beyond the geographic boundaries of their country of origin. These ideas were radically new in the 10th Century BCE and were the true fruition of tentative speculative beginnings made in the Samhitas and Brahmanas. It is the Upanishads that state that the goal of spiritual life is to attain moksha; and moksha is attainable through gaining true knowledge of the self (atman) which reveals the identity, the oneness of the atman with the Brahman. Atman is Brahman. 'That thou art', proclaim the Upanishads.